Daniel Clausen

The Shroud of Turin, an enigmatic and venerated relic in Christian history, has fascinated believers and skeptics alike. Known for its mysterious image of a crucified man believed by many to be Jesus Christ, the Shroud has been the subject of extensive research and is one of the most studied objects in the history of the world. The STURP Project, the only sanctioned study of the Shroud concluded, "We can conclude for now that the Shroud image is that of a real human form of a scourged, crucified man. It is not the product of an artist."
 

While it gained widespread public attention in the 14th century, numerous references and depictions suggest that it existed long before this period. Here, I will delve into the documented mentions and illustrations of the Shroud prior to its public reveal, tracing its journey through various historical contexts and geographies, clearly antedating the carbon-14 dating. Special thanks to Joe Marino, who collected many of these mentions in his list on Academia.edu, and also to Russ Breault, who also provides an excellent catalogue on Academia.edu, both of which have helped to compile this document.
 

1st Century - 3rd Century, The Earliest References
 

The earliest liturgical clue to the Shroud's ancient existence beyond the four gospels may well be The Hymn of the Pearl, also known as the Hymn of the Robe of Glory and can be found in the apocryphal book, The Acts of Thomas (216 AD). It is attributed to the poet Bardesane of Edessa, however its origin may be as early as 1st century:
 

I saw my image on my burial garment like in a mirror … (image on a linen shroud)
Myself facing outward … (dorsal image)
and myself facing inward … (frontal image)
As though divided, yet one likeness … (single cloth)
Two images, but one likeness of the King of Kings … (double image)

(Dreisbach, "Thomas and the Hymn of the Pearl," p.14)
 

The poem refers to the burial garment of Jesus, explicitly with his body and likeness. It should be noted that the photographic image that we know so well today would have been unable to be seen, and only the negative that is on the Shroud that provides only a “likeness” of his image.

Additionally, the Gospel of the Hebrews, a lost gospel from the first half of the second century, with some scholars even placing it in the first century, is quoted by Origen of Alexandria (184-253), and to the existence of the linen shroud at the time of its writing, saying: "When the Lord had given the linen cloth to the servant of the priest, he went and appeared to James." (Simon, "The Shroud and the Historical Jesus," p.4)
 

The Image of Edessa (33AD / 300s)
 

Many of the earliest potential references to the Shroud are associated with the Image of Edessa, also known as the Mandylion. The Mandylion was reputedly a miraculous image of Jesus' face imprinted on a cloth, which was kept in Edessa (modern-day Urfa, Turkey). This relic was venerated and played a significant role in the Christian East. According to some scholars, the Mandylion could have been part of the larger Shroud, folded in such a way that only the face was visible.
 

Historical accounts mention the arrival of the Mandylion in Edessa. Eusebius of Caesarea, a 4th-century church historian, recounted the story of King Abgar V of Edessa, who wrote to Jesus seeking a cure for his illness. According to the legend, Jesus responded with a letter and a cloth bearing his image, which miraculously healed the king. This cloth was then preserved in Edessa. The tenth-century Latin sermon "De Imagine Edessena" describes how the cloth was displayed and venerated in a golden chest during major Christian festivals.
 

The Doctrine of Addai (300s)
 

Another reference that may pertain to the Shroud is found in the "Doctrine of Addai," a Syriac document from the 4th century which regales the Edessa tradition. This text tells the story of Thaddeus of Edessa, one of the seventy disciples, who brought the sacred cloth bearing the image of Jesus to King Abgar. The description of this cloth closely aligns with the narrative of the Mandylion, suggesting that these early references might be interconnected accounts of the same relic.
 

The Acts of Thaddeus
 

The "Acts of Thaddeus," another early Christian text from the 6th century, recounts how Thaddeus (Addai) brought the holy image to Edessa. This text provides additional context to the narrative of the Doctrine of Addai, reinforcing the notion that a sacred cloth bearing the image of Christ was venerated in Edessa. This cloth, believed by some to be the Shroud, was considered a miraculous relic and an integral part of early Christian traditions in the region.
 

4th Century - Institutional Recognition
 

Pope Sylvester instituted by papal decree in 325 that the Church should celebrate the holy sacrifice of the Mass, representing the body and blood of Christ, on a linen cloth consecrated by the bishop, as if it were the clean Shroud of Christ. (Dreisbach, "Liturgical Clues to the Shroud's History")
 

This institution of covering the altar with linen representing the Shroud demonstrates knowledge of its existence and the shape and size of the cloth as a long rectangular linen. It explains a centuries-old tradition practiced in all denominations. Nothing could be more connected to the body and blood of Christ than the burial shroud that wrapped his crucified body represented by the linen covering the altar.
 

Bishop Theodore of Mopsuestia of Antioch (350-428), developed a Catechism with instructions before the celebration of the Mass: "When they bring up the oblation at the offertory, they place it on the altar for the completed representation of the passion so that we may think of Him on the altar as if He were placed in the sepulcher after having received the passion. This is why the deacons who spread the linens on the altar represent the figure on the linen cloths at the burial." (Dreisbach, "Liturgical Clues to the Shroud's History")
 

This adds another crucial element. Not only does the previous reference indicate the size and shape of the cloth but now Bishop Theodore establishes how the deacons who carry the cloth down the aisle represent the double image on the linen.
 

Evagrius Scholasticus (544)
 

Evagrius Scholasticus, a 6th-century Byzantine historian, provides another early reference to the Shroud. In his ecclesiastical history, he describes a miraculous image of Christ, known as the "acheiropoietos" (not made by human hands), which protected the city of Edessa from Persian invaders in 544 AD. While Evagrius does not explicitly mention the Shroud, his account of a protective image of Christ in Edessa aligns with the narrative surrounding the Mandylion and suggests the presence of a revered cloth image in the city during this period.
 

6th Century - Scriptural Evidence
 

A crucial reference appears in the translation of John 20:5-6 from the Mozarabic Rite of Holy Week: "Peter ran with John to the tomb and saw the recent imprints of the dead and risen man on the linens." (Dreisbach, "Liturgical Clues to the Shroud's History")
 

This is a critical reference as they re-translated scripture to reflect the image seen on the Shroud. It is not in the bible but goes back 1500 years. Why would they choose to translate the verse in this fashion unless it was based on knowledge of the Shroud's existence and what it contained? The previous references indicate an earlier origin, perhaps even 1st century and how the Shroud was integral to the symbolism of the Mass, the central sacrament of the Church.
 

Arculf in Jerusalem (670)
 

Another significant early reference comes from the Frankish bishop Arculf, who visited Jerusalem around 670 AD. His testimony, preserved by Adomnán of Iona in De Locis Sanctis, records that he personally saw and kissed a burial cloth of Christ approximately eight feet long, kept in the city under the custody of the Christians but contested by rival groups. Even the Caliph Muʿāwiya is said to have been involved in its adjudication, and the cloth was revered enough that miraculous properties were ascribed to it. This account is remarkable in that it provides an eyewitness report of the relic in Jerusalem within the 7th century—perfectly compatible with the Shroud of Turin if one considers the possibility that it was displayed folded, and that its faint image would not have been noticed at close range.

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8th Century - The Iconoclastic Period
 

By the 8th century, icon images fell out of favor and were thought to be a form of idolatry. These "iconoclast" movements brought on widespread destruction of all sacred images starting in 726 until 787 and the Second Council of Nicea.

The Second Council of Nicea in 787 included the following statement as the basis to restore veneration of sacred images: "In the two years preceding the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus Vespasian, the faithful were warned by the Holy Ghost to leave Jerusalem and go to the kingdom of Agrippa, still allied to the Romans. Thus, going forth from the city, they took with them their most precious objects; this is how the images and other sacred objects were taken to Syria (Edessa) and were to be found there." (Ricci, The Holy Shroud, p. XXII)
 

The True-Likeness, first brought to Edessa by the Apostle Jude Thaddeus according to Orthodox tradition, was the principal argument to restore veneration of holy icons as a valid religious practice. A powerful advocate of icons was St. Theodore the Studite who referenced the Shroud as a full body image in which the Christ was wrapped and laid down in the sepulcher. (Marinelli and Fasol, Light from the Sepulcher, p. 9)
 

Regarding why Jude brought the sacred cloth to King Abgar, Theodore said it was: "To clearly grant us His divine features, our Savior who had been covered with it, imprinted the form of His own face and portraying it touching the cloth with His own skin." (Marinelli and Fasol, Light from the Sepulcher, p. 9)
 

Pope Stephen III gave his full support to restoring images to the revered place they once held with the following statement: "Christ spread out his entire body on a linen cloth that was white as snow. On this cloth, marvelous as it is to see…. the glorious image of the Lord's face, and the length of his entire and most noble body, has been divinely transferred." (Trenn, "The Shroud of Turin: A Parable for Modern Times," p. 5)
 

The logical inference of these statements is that if Jesus preserved an image of himself on his linen shroud, it was done to offer his likeness as a means of facilitating worship and therefore fully justifies the use of icon images for the same purpose.
 

The Journey to Constantinople
 

In the 11th century, significant changes occurred due to political and religious upheavals. The Shroud is believed to have been moved from Edessa to Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire. Historical records from this period indicate that numerous relics, including the Shroud, were transferred to Constantinople to protect them from invasions and desecration.
 

One such record, the "Narratio de Imagine Edessena," an anonymous Latin text, notes that the Shroud was kept in Constantinople in a golden case and was shown only to the Emperor, highlighting its significance and the care taken to preserve it. Additionally, the Tarragona Manuscript, dated between 1075 and 1099, confirms the Shroud's survival through the Byzantine iconoclasm and its esteemed status in the imperial relic collection.
 

10th Century - The Transfer to Constantinople
 

By 944, Edessa had fallen to Islam and the emperor was concerned over the safety of the most holy relic of Christendom. After trading 200 prisoners of war and bags of silver, the sacred cloth was retrieved from Edessa without bloodshed and brought to Constantinople. Gregory the Archdeacon of the Hagia Sophia delivered a sermon in the palace on August 16, 944. During the ceremony, the cloth was laid out on the emperor's throne and crowned with the emperor's crown. Standing next to the linen Gregory points out the following features:

"The splendor has been impressed uniquely by the drops of agony sweat sprinkled from the face…These are truly the beauties that produced the coloring of Christ's imprint, which has been embellished further by the drops of blood sprinkled from his own side… blood and water there, sweat and image here." (Guscin, "Sermon of Gregory Referendarius," p. 12)
 

A clear reference to the side wound is proof it was more than a face image. He describes "blood and water" yet on the Shroud we know the side wound shows the separation of blood and serum which appears clear like water and indicates a wound that occurred after death when the blood is no longer circulating. The mention of "sweat" as a cause of the image indicates an absence of paint, just as we see on the Shroud.
 

11th Century - Full Body Descriptions
 

A Latin version of the first century Abgar legend shows the following response from Jesus to King Abgar's request for him to come to Edessa to heal the king. Once again, we see a clear reference to the cloth brought to Abgar as a full body image of Jesus, not just his face: "But if you wish to see my face in the flesh, behold I send to you a linen, on which you will discover not only the features of my face, but a divinely copied configuration of my entire body." (Drews, In Search of the Shroud of Turin, p. 46)
 

The Hungarian Pray Manuscript
 

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A critical piece of evidence supporting the Shroud's existence before the 14th century is the Hungarian Pray Manuscript, created between 1192 and 1195. This manuscript, named after its discoverer György Pray, contains illustrations that remarkably resemble the Shroud of Turin. Among these is the depiction of Jesus with crossed arms over his pelvic area, and thumbs tucked under the hand, details unique to the Shroud. The manuscript also shows what appear to be L-shaped
burn marks, identical to those on the Shroud. These similarities strongly suggest that the Shroud was
known and perhaps even seen by the manuscript's illustrator.

There are 12 specific attributes of the Shroud that are documented in the codex found in the Hungarian Pray Manuscript dated to 1192. The artist who crafted the image was an eyewitness to the Shroud kept in Constantinople sometime between 1160 and 1170 when King Bela III of Hungary served in the court of the emperor. Captured in this document is the exact same size and dimension of the Shroud (a long narrow rectangular cloth enveloping the body lengthwise), the unique herringbone pattern weave, and an "L" shaped pattern of burn holes unique to the Shroud of Turin.
 

The Menaion
 

Further supporting the Shroud's existence in the Byzantine period are liturgical references. The "Menaion," a liturgical book of the Eastern Orthodox Church, includes hymns and prayers that reference the burial cloth of Christ. These texts, dating back to the 12th century, describe the cloth in terms consistent with the Shroud, indicating that it was an object of veneration and incorporated into the religious practices of the time.
 

12th Century - Contemporary Accounts
 

From Ordericus Vitalis who wrote Ecclesiastical History circa 1141: "A precious linen, on which he had wiped off the sweat from his face, and on which an image of this same Savior shines forth, miraculously painted (imprinted): this image shows to whoever looks upon it the appearance and size of the Lord's body." (Drews, In Search of the Shroud of Turin, p. 47)
 

The Relics of Constantinople
 

In the 12th century, the Shroud's presence in Constantinople is further corroborated by various inventories and descriptions of relics. William of Tyre, a medieval historian, documented that during King Amaury I of Jerusalem's visit in 1171, Emperor Manuel I Comnenus displayed numerous relics of the Passion, including the Shroud (referred to as the "sindon"). This entry reinforces the notion that the Shroud was part of the imperial relic collection and venerated as a significant artifact of Jesus' Passion.
 

The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople
 

The Fourth Crusade's sack of Constantinople in 1204 marked a pivotal moment in the history of the Shroud. The city was ransacked by Crusaders, and many relics were looted and transported to Western Europe. Robert de Clari, a French knight who participated in the Fourth Crusade, wrote in his chronicle that he saw the Shroud of Christ in the Church of St. Mary of Blachernae in Constantinople: "But among the rest [of the churches in Constantinople], there was also another which was called Saint Mary of Blachernae, within which was the shroud wherein Our Lord was wrapped. And on every Friday that shroud did raise itself upright, so that the form of Our Lord could clearly be seen. And none knows - neither Greek nor Frank (French) - what became of that shroud when the city was taken." (Wilson, The Shroud: The 2000-Year-Old Mystery Solved, p. 108)
 

After the city was sacked and pillaged, Theodore Angelus of Constantinople, brother of the emperor, crafted a letter of protest in 1205 to Pope Innocent III that read: "In April last year, a crusading army, having falsely set out to liberate the Holy Land, instead laid waste the City of Constantine. During the sack, troops of Venice and France looted even the Holy Sanctuaries. The Venetians partitioned the treasures of gold, silver, and ivory, while the French did the same with the relics of the saints and... Most sacred of all, the linen in which our Lord Jesus Christ was wrapped after his death and before the resurrection. We know that the sacred objects are preserved by their predators, in Venice, in France, and other places, the sacred linen in Athens." (Wilson, The Shroud: The 2000-Year-Old Mystery Solved, p. 214)
 

13th Century - Additional References
 

From Gervase of Tilbury circa 1213: "The story is passed down from Archives of Ancient Authority that the Lord prostrated himself with his entire body, on the whitest linen, and so by divine power there was impressed on the linen a most beautiful imprint of not only the face, but the entire body of the Lord." (Drews, In Search of the Shroud of Turin, p. 48)

It is important to note how Gervase makes it clear the linen cloth has a long history pre-dating 1213 when he made this statement.
 

Throughout the 13th century, references to a burial shroud of Christ appear in various texts and inventories across Europe. These references, while not always directly naming the Shroud of Turin, describe a cloth bearing the image of Christ, suggesting that the relic was known and venerated in different locations.
 

For instance, a 1205 letter from Theodore Angelos, the ruler of Epirus, to Pope Innocent III mentions the sacred burial cloth of Christ. This letter indicates that the relic was highly valued and sought after by Christian leaders during this period.
 

The Knights Templar and the Shroud
 

The Shroud's disappearance following the sack of Constantinople in 1204 and its reappearance in the 14th century is a period shrouded in mystery. Researcher Barbara Frale has found evidence in the trial records of the Knights Templar that suggests the Shroud was in the possession of the order before it was suppressed. According to these records, the Shroud had disappeared during the sack of Constantinople and did not surface again until 1353, when it was displayed in a church at Lirey in France by the nephew of Geoffroi de Charney, The Templar Preceptor of France.

Arnaut Sabbatier's Testimony

An intriguing account supporting the Templar possession of the Shroud comes from Arnaut Sabbatier, a young Frenchman who entered the order in 1287. He testified that as part of his initiation, he was taken to a secret place accessible only to the brothers of the Temple. There, he was shown a long linen cloth on which was impressed the figure of a man and instructed to venerate the image by kissing its feet three times. This testimony provides a compelling link between the Templars and the Shroud, suggesting that they may have safeguarded it during the period it was thought to be lost.
 

The Shroud of Turin Research Project (STURP) and Carbon-14 Dating

In 1988, the Shroud of Turin was subjected to carbon-14 dating by three independent laboratories, coordinated by the Shroud of Turin Research Project (STURP). The results indicated that the linen cloth dated to between 1260 and 1390 AD, suggesting it was a medieval creation rather than a relic from the time of Christ. However, many researchers and scholars have questioned these results, citing potential contamination, repair patches, fire, and the presence of a bioplastic coating on the linen as factors that could have skewed the dating process.
 

In 2013, Dr. Giulio Fanti conducted infrared dating on threads from the Shroud of Turin, concluding that the fibers dated between 300 BC and 400 AD, potentially placing the Shroud within the timeframe of Jesus' life. More recently, in 2022, Italian scientist Liberato De Caro used a Wide-Angle X-ray Scattering (WAXS) method to date the Shroud. This technique examined the natural aging of cellulose fibers and suggested that the Shroud is around 2,000 years old, aligning with the period of Christ's death and resurrection.
 

The fact that one sample was cut from the most held and handled part of the cloth documented to have been held up manually for exhibition by church officials over 275 times from 1418 to 1694 is clear they chose the worst possible sample location to determine the cloth's age.
 

Despite the carbon-14 dating results, the historical references and depictions of the Shroud prior to the 14th century provide compelling evidence for its existence and veneration well before the medieval period. The early references to the Image of Edessa, the accounts of Evagrius Scholasticus, and the illustrations in the Hungarian Pray Manuscript all contribute to a rich historical narrative that supports the Shroud's antiquity. Additionally, new dating techniques such as the infrared test and the WAXS x-ray test have firmly placed the dating of the Shroud in the first century, in a repeatable, testable way.
 

Timeline of the Shroud (if all points are granted)
 

1st Century (c. 30–33 AD) – Jerusalem & Edessa
 

• 33 AD: Jesus is crucified, buried in the linen Shroud.

• According to the Abgar tradition, the disciple Thaddeus/Addai brings a holy cloth (the Shroud, folded to show only the face = "tetradiplon") to Edessa.

• King Abgar V (ruled 4 BC – AD 50) is said to be healed by the image, integrating the cloth into Edessa's royal/Christian identity.

 

2nd–4th Century
 

• The cloth remains hidden in Edessa during times of persecution, possibly bricked into the city wall.

• Eusebius (early 300s) records the Abgar-Jesus correspondence but not the image.

• Doctrine of Addai (300s) and Syriac traditions begin linking the cloth more explicitly with an image.

• 325 AD: Pope Sylvester institutes papal decree for Mass to be celebrated on linen cloth "as if it were the clean Shroud of Christ."

 

5th–6th Century – The Edessa "Rediscovery"
 

• Acts of Thaddeus (500s) explicitly mentions the miraculous image on cloth.

• 544 AD: During the Persian siege, Evagrius Scholasticus records that an acheiropoietos (not-made-by-hands) image of Christ saves Edessa. This confirms the cloth's veneration as a protective relic.

• c. 6th century: Mozarabic Rite translates John 20:5-6 to include "saw the recent imprints of the dead and risen man on the linens."

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7th Century – Jerusalem
 

• c. 630s–640s: Persians and later Arabs take the Levant; relics move around.

• 670 AD: The Frankish bishop Arculf reports in De Locis Sanctis that he personally saw an kissed an eight-foot burial shroud of Christ in Jerusalem, contested between Christian groups, with Caliph Muʿāwiya I mediating the dispute.

• Suggests the Shroud temporarily left Edessa for Jerusalem (or a copy traveled), before returning east.

8th Century – Iconoclastic Period
 

• 726-787: Iconoclastic movements destroy sacred images.

• 787: Second Council of Nicea uses the True-Likeness as principal argument to restore veneration of icons.

• St. Theodore the Studite references the Shroud as a full body image.

• Pope Stephen III describes "Christ spread out his entire body on a linen cloth that was white as snow."

 

10th Century – Transfer to Constantinople
 

• 944 AD: Byzantine forces transfer the Mandylion (Image of Edessa) to Constantinople. Ceremonially deposited in the Pharos Chapel of the imperial palace.

• Gregory the Archdeacon describes features including reference to the side wound with "blood and water."

• Some texts (Narratio de Imagine Edessena) describe not just a face, but a cloth showing the whole body, folded. This suggests the Mandylion = Shroud theory.

 

11th–12th Century – Constantinople Inventories
 

• The Shroud survives Iconoclasm and remains in imperial custody.

• 1075–1099 (Tarragona Manuscript): Mentions the Shroud in Constantinople.

• c. 1141: Ordericus Vitalis describes "image shows to whoever looks upon it the appearance and size of the Lord's body."

• 1171: William of Tyre records that Emperor Manuel I shows King Amaury of Jerusalem relics of the Passion, including the burial cloth (sindon).

• 12th-century liturgies (Menaion) reference the burial linens, confirming cultic awareness of the Shroud.

 

Late 12th Century – The Hungarian Pray Manuscript
 

• c. 1192–1195: The Hungarian Pray Codex illustrates Christ's burial with:

  • Arms crossed, no thumbs (nerve damage like the Shroud).

  • Distinctive L-shaped burn/mark patterns identical to the Shroud.

  • Strong evidence the Shroud was physically seen by someone connected with Constantinople.

 

1204 – The Fourth Crusade
 

• Crusaders sack Constantinople.

• Robert de Clari, French knight, reports seeing the burial shroud in the Church of St. Mary of Blachernae: "the Shroud wherein Our Lord had been wrapped was there every Friday, raised up so one could see the figure of Our Lord upon it."

• After the sack, the Shroud disappears from Byzantine record.

 

13th Century – The Missing Years
 

• 1205: Theodore Angelos, ruler of Epirus, writes to Pope Innocent III about the plundering of Constantinople's relics, specifically naming Christ's burial shroud and stating it was taken to "Athens."

• c. 1213: Gervase of Tilbury describes the cloth showing "the entire body of the Lord."

• 1287: Templar initiate Arnaut Sabbatier testifies that he was shown a long linen cloth with a man's figure, which he was told to venerate. Suggests the Templars secretly safeguarded the Shroud.

14th Century – Lirey, France
 

• 1353–1356: Geoffroi de Charny displays the Shroud in Lirey, France. This is its first undisputed Western appearance.

• Pilgrims venerate it publicly; bishops initially question its authenticity, but devotion grows.

 

Modern Investigations
 

• 1988: Carbon-14 test dates the Shroud to 1260–1390, suggesting medieval forgery.

• 2013 (Fanti, infrared): Dates it to 300 BC–400 AD.

• 2022 (De Caro, WAXS): Dates it to ~2,000 years old.

• Combined with history, scientific challenges to C-14 suggest the Shroud's origin plausibly lies in the 1st century.

 

Conclusion
 

The Shroud of Turin's history prior to its 14th-century public reveal is supported by a variety of references and depictions from different periods and regions. While the 1988 carbon-14 dating results have sparked controversy and debate, they represent only a single line of inquiry. Against this, we find a web of historical and literary traces stretching deep into Christian antiquity—the Gospel accounts of the burial cloths, possible allusions in apocryphal works such as the Hymn of the Pearl, early references to acheiropoieta (images “not made by hands”), and subsequent Byzantine traditions surrounding a mysterious burial shroud. Taken individually, each of these witnesses might be explained away as referring to other cloths, traditions, or pious inventions. But taken together, they form a cumulative
case that is difficult to dismiss. Even if all of these references do not point with certainty to the Shroud of Turin, it is improbable that none of them preserve a memory of the same relic. Thus, the balance of evidence suggests a pre-medieval existence for the Shroud, standing as a historical counterweight to the contested C-14 test and reinforcing its claim to be not merely an artifact of medieval piety, but a relic with roots in the earliest centuries of Christianity.